Plasmid
- Plasmids are the extrachromosomal genetic elements found in bacteria.
- They are circular pieces of DNA that are extra genes.
- About 1-20 copies of plasmids are present in one bacterial cell.
- Episomes are the type of plasmid that can be inserted into the bacterial chromosome and can replicate with it.
- For normal life and functioning, a plasmid is not required in the bacteria. But their presence confers new properties in the bacteria. Example: Drug resistance, toxigenicity
Properties/Characteristics of bacterial plasmids:
- Physical properties:
- Plasmid is a double-stranded circular and supercoiled DNA.
- Within a cell, it can exist autonomously. It can replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome.
- It has a molecular weight of 106-108 which may encode from 40-50 genes.
- It has about 1-3% of the weight of the bacterial chromosome consisting of 1500-400,000 base pairs.
- Plasmid as large as 2 million base pairs can occur in some bacteria.
- Replication:
- It contains genes for self-replication.
- Curing:
- It can be lost spontaneously or by curing agents.
- Incompatibility:
- In the same cell, two members of the same group cannot co-exist.
- Transferability:
- Some plasmids are self-transferable.
- Recombinations:
- Episome can integrate with host chromosome.
- Mobilisation:
- By the process of integration, the self-transferable plasmid can mobilize the chromosomal gene or other plasmids.
Types of plasmid:
- Based on their function, plasmids are of five types:
- Resistance ( R ) plasmid
- Fertility (F) plasmid
- Bacteriocinogen or Col plasmid
- Degradative plasmid
- Virulence plasmid
1. R-plasmid (R-factor):
- They are circular with double-stranded plasmid.
- R factor occurs in two sizes:
- large plasmids ( mol. wt. 60 million)
- small plasmids ( mol. Wt. 10 million)
- Large plasmids are conjugative ‘R’ factors. To code for the conjugation process, it contains extra DNA.
- Small plasmids contain only the ‘r’ genes. They are not conjugative.
- It consists of two components.
- Resistance transfer factor (RTF): carries the genes that govern the process of intercellular transfer.
- Resistant determinant ( R-determinant): carries resistant genes for each of the several drugs.
- The drug resistance is not transferrable in the case when RTF dissociates from the R-determinant.
- For the spread of the multiple drug resistance in the bacteria, R factor plays a vital role.
- Antibiotics can be destroyed and the membrane transport system can be modified.
- R-factor may carry the resistance genes either one, two, or more than these.
- They may also carry the gene resistance for the metal ions.
- They also carry resistance to certain bacteriophages by coding for the enzymes.
2. F-plasmids:
- It is a transfer factor or F-factor.
- It contains genetic information, which controls the mating process of the bacteria during the conjugation.
- It contains the basic genetic information necessary for:
- Extra-chromosomal existence
- Self-transfer
- Synthesis of sex-pilus.
- F-plasmid carries some fourteen genes which include the structural gene for the pilin.
- Pilin is the pilus protein that functions in sex pilus formation.
- Strains of bacteria having the F plasmid are called F+ and function as donors.
- Strains of bacteria lacking the F plasmid are called F- and function as recipients.
- It is also called the conjugative plasmid.
- The conjugative function is determined by the cluster of at least 25 transfer (tra) genes.
- These genes determine:
- Expression of pili
- Synthesis and transfer of DNA during mating
- Interference with the ability of F+ bacteria to serve as recipients.
3. Bacteriocinogen or Col plasmid:
- Coliforms produce extracellular colicins.
- In the several species of coliform, the colicinogenic (col) factors are present.
- These bacterial factors are the lethal toxins for the closely related species or even for the different strains of the same species.
- Some bacterial substances are produced not only by the coliforms but also by the other bacteria.
- This group of substances is called bacteriocins.
- Colicins are produced by coli
- Pyocin are produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
- Marscesins are produced by Serratia marcescens.
- Diphthericin is produced by Corynebacterium diphtheria.
- Bacteriocin produced by the different bacterial strains helps in the interspecies typing of organisms.
4. Degradative plasmids:
- From the dead plants and animals, degradative plasmid helps in the degradation and digestion of the dead organic matter.
- It is then used in the biosynthesis process.
- It will make energy and will recycle further.
5. Virulence plasmids:
- With the help of this plasmid, bacteria will be transformed into a pathogen.
- It carries the genes which are responsible for causing disease.
Based on the role in conjugation, plasmids are of two types:
- Conjugative plasmid
- Non-conjugative plasmid
i. Conjugative plasmids:
- These large plasmids (F plasmids) carry genes that are responsible for transferring themselves to other cells.
- It includes the genes that direct the synthesis of sex pilli.
ii. Non-conjugative plasmids:
- These plasmids are present in Gram-positive bacteria, especially in the Gram-positive cocci.
- It is also present in the Gram-negative organism. Example: Haemophilus influenza, Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
- They are usually small, 1-10 dal.
- In each bacterium, multiple copies (more than 30 ) may be present.
- When the same bacterium carries both the conjugative and non-conjugative plasmids, they can be mobilized for transfer to another cell.
- When the conjugation is established then the donor can transfer non-conjugative plasmids.
Functions/applications of plasmid:
- The main function of the plasmid is the spread of antibiotic-resistant genes. These resistant genes are carried within the plasmid and are transferred from one cell to another.
- Plasmid is used in recombinant DNA technology.
- To deliver the desired drug into the body, a plasmid is used.
- For the insertion of the human insulin on the body
- Insertion of human growth hormone in mammalian cells of animals.
- Plasmids are used in Gene Therapy:
- For the insertion of the therapeutic genes in the human body. It helps to fight against diseases.
- Easy manipulation and can be replicated in bacterial cells easily.
- Targeting the defected cells easily and triggering the therapeutic genes in them.
- Plasmids carry the genes involved in metabolic activities. They aid in the digestion of pollutants from the environment.
- Plasmids can produce antibacterial proteins.
- Plasmid can carry genes that increase the pathogenicity of the bacteria.
- When the nutrients are scarce, the plasmid can help bacteria by:
- Fix the nitrogen
- Degrade organic compounds
Host Range of plasmid
- The host range of a plasmid means the types of bacteria in which the plasmid can replicate.
- It is usually determined by the ori region from where the replication starts.
- Plasmid having the narrow host range includes:
- ColE1 plasmid type; Example: pBR322, pET, and pUC.
- Replication of these plasmids occurs only in coli.
- It may occur in Salmonella and Klebsiella also which are closely related bacteria.
- Plasmids having the broad host range includes:
- RK2
- RSF1010 plasmids
- RC plasmids; Example: pBBR1MCS .
- Plasmids with the ori region of RK2 can replicate in most types of Gram-negative proteobacteria.
- Plasmids with the RSF1010-derived plasmids can replicate in Gram-positive bacteria too. Example: Firmicutes.
- Replication of the same plasmid can occur even in the distantly related bacteria.
- Broad-host-range plasmids do not depend on the host cell because they encode their proteins. These proteins are essential for the initiation of replication.
- Broad host-range plasmids should be for gene expression in many types of bacteria.
Determining the Host Range
- It is sometimes difficult to ensure the particular plasmid will replicate on the other host or not. So, The actual host ranges of most plasmids are unknown.
- Initially, plasmids need to be introduced to the other bacteria.
- So, for this process, a system has been developed which is known as transformation.
- By this method, the plasmid can be introduced into the bacteria to see if it could replicate or not.
- But it has limitations as it can’t be applied to all types of bacteria.
- Similarly, to introduce DNA into cells, electroporation can be used.
- Plasmids can be introduced into other types of bacteria by the conjugation process.
- It is also found that the expression of the gene present in one plasmid does not function well or doesn’t get expressed in the other bacterium.
- Sometimes the selected gene can be introduced into the different bacteria.
- A bacterium might possess resistance to any antibiotic due to the presence of a particular gene. Such resistance property can be transferred to other bacteria too when they will uptake those resistant genes.
- For example, the kanamycin resistance gene, which is first found in the Tn5 It can be expressed in most Gram-negative bacteria. Then, it will make resistant to kanamycin antibiotic.
- By this property, a marker gene can be cloned in the plasmid. i.e making numerous copies.
- A transposon carrying a selectable marker into the plasmid can also be introduced by this method.
- Care must also be taken to ensure that the plasmid has not recombined into the host chromosome.
- Determining the host range of a plasmid is laborious too. Many barriers hinder the transfer of plasmid into the host. The same method can’t be approached to all sorts of plasmids and bacteria.