Plasmid: characteristics, types, functions and host range




Plasmid: characteristics, types and functions
Plasmid: characteristics, types and functions

Plasmid

  • Plasmids are the extrachromosomal genetic elements found in bacteria.
  • They are circular pieces of DNA that are extra genes.
  • About 1-20 copies of plasmids are present in one bacterial cell.
  • Episomes are the type of plasmid that can be inserted into the bacterial chromosome and can replicate with it.
  • For normal life and functioning, a plasmid is not required in the bacteria. But their presence confers new properties in the bacteria. Example: Drug resistance, toxigenicity

Properties/Characteristics of bacterial plasmids:

  1. Physical properties:
    • Plasmid is a double-stranded circular and supercoiled DNA.
    • Within a cell, it can exist autonomously. It can replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome.
    • It has a molecular weight of 106-108 which may encode from 40-50 genes.
    • It has about 1-3% of the weight of the bacterial chromosome consisting of 1500-400,000 base pairs.
    • Plasmid as large as 2 million base pairs can occur in some bacteria.
  1. Replication:
    • It contains genes for self-replication.
  1. Curing:
    • It can be lost spontaneously or by curing agents.
  1. Incompatibility:
    • In the same cell, two members of the same group cannot co-exist.
  1. Transferability:
    • Some plasmids are self-transferable.
  1. Recombinations:
    • Episome can integrate with host chromosome.
  1. Mobilisation:
    • By the process of integration, the self-transferable plasmid can mobilize the chromosomal gene or other plasmids.

Types of plasmid:

  • Based on their function, plasmids are of five types:
  • Resistance ( R ) plasmid
  • Fertility (F) plasmid
  • Bacteriocinogen or Col plasmid
  • Degradative plasmid
  • Virulence plasmid

 1. R-plasmid (R-factor):

  • They are circular with double-stranded plasmid.
  • R factor occurs in two sizes:
    • large plasmids ( mol. wt. 60 million)
    • small plasmids ( mol. Wt. 10 million)
  • Large plasmids are conjugative ‘R’ factors. To code for the conjugation process, it contains extra DNA.
  • Small plasmids contain only the ‘r’ genes. They are not conjugative.
  • It consists of two components.
    • Resistance transfer factor (RTF): carries the genes that govern the process of intercellular transfer.
    • Resistant determinant ( R-determinant): carries resistant genes for each of the several drugs.
  • The drug resistance is not transferrable in the case when RTF dissociates from the R-determinant.
  • For the spread of the multiple drug resistance in the bacteria, R factor plays a vital role.
  • Antibiotics can be destroyed and the membrane transport system can be modified.
  • R-factor may carry the resistance genes either one, two, or more than these.
  • They may also carry the gene resistance for the metal ions.
  • They also carry resistance to certain bacteriophages by coding for the enzymes.

2. F-plasmids:

  • It is a transfer factor or F-factor.
  • It contains genetic information, which controls the mating process of the bacteria during the conjugation.
  • It contains the basic genetic information necessary for:
    • Extra-chromosomal existence
    • Self-transfer
    • Synthesis of sex-pilus.
  • F-plasmid carries some fourteen genes which include the structural gene for the pilin.
  • Pilin is the pilus protein that functions in sex pilus formation.
  • Strains of bacteria having the F plasmid are called F+ and function as donors.
  • Strains of bacteria lacking the F plasmid are called F- and function as recipients.
  • It is also called the conjugative plasmid.
  • The conjugative function is determined by the cluster of at least 25 transfer (tra) genes.
  • These genes determine:
    • Expression of pili
    • Synthesis and transfer of DNA during mating
    • Interference with the ability of F+ bacteria to serve as recipients.

3. Bacteriocinogen or Col plasmid:

  • Coliforms produce extracellular colicins.
  • In the several species of coliform, the colicinogenic (col) factors are present.
  • These bacterial factors are the lethal toxins for the closely related species or even for the different strains of the same species.
  • Some bacterial substances are produced not only by the coliforms but also by the other bacteria.
  • This group of substances is called bacteriocins.
  • Colicins are produced by coli
  • Pyocin are produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
  • Marscesins are produced by Serratia marcescens.
  • Diphthericin is produced by Corynebacterium diphtheria.
  • Bacteriocin produced by the different bacterial strains helps in the interspecies typing of organisms.

4. Degradative plasmids:

  • From the dead plants and animals, degradative plasmid helps in the degradation and digestion of the dead organic matter.
  • It is then used in the biosynthesis process.
  • It will make energy and will recycle further.

5. Virulence plasmids:

  • With the help of this plasmid, bacteria will be transformed into a pathogen.
  • It carries the genes which are responsible for causing disease.

Based on the role in conjugation, plasmids are of two types:

  • Conjugative plasmid
  • Non-conjugative plasmid

i. Conjugative plasmids:

  • These large plasmids (F plasmids) carry genes that are responsible for transferring themselves to other cells.
  • It includes the genes that direct the synthesis of sex pilli.

ii. Non-conjugative plasmids:

  • These plasmids are present in Gram-positive bacteria, especially in the Gram-positive cocci.
  • It is also present in the Gram-negative organism. Example: Haemophilus influenza, Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
  • They are usually small, 1-10 dal.
  • In each bacterium, multiple copies (more than 30 ) may be present.
  • When the same bacterium carries both the conjugative and non-conjugative plasmids, they can be mobilized for transfer to another cell.
  • When the conjugation is established then the donor can transfer non-conjugative plasmids.

Functions/applications of plasmid:

  • The main function of the plasmid is the spread of antibiotic-resistant genes. These resistant genes are carried within the plasmid and are transferred from one cell to another.
  • Plasmid is used in recombinant DNA technology.
  • To deliver the desired drug into the body, a plasmid is used.
  • For the insertion of the human insulin on the body
  • Insertion of human growth hormone in mammalian cells of animals.
  • Plasmids are used in Gene Therapy:
    • For the insertion of the therapeutic genes in the human body. It helps to fight against diseases.
    • Easy manipulation and can be replicated in bacterial cells easily.
    • Targeting the defected cells easily and triggering the therapeutic genes in them.
  • Plasmids carry the genes involved in metabolic activities. They aid in the digestion of pollutants from the environment.
  • Plasmids can produce antibacterial proteins.
  • Plasmid can carry genes that increase the pathogenicity of the bacteria.
  • When the nutrients are scarce, the plasmid can help bacteria by:
    • Fix the nitrogen
    • Degrade organic compounds

Host Range of plasmid

  • The host range of a plasmid means the types of bacteria in which the plasmid can replicate.
  • It is usually determined by the ori region from where the replication starts.
  • Plasmid having the narrow host range includes:
    • ColE1 plasmid type; Example: pBR322, pET, and pUC.
    • Replication of these plasmids occurs only in coli.
    • It may occur in Salmonella and Klebsiella also which are closely related bacteria.
  • Plasmids having the broad host range includes:
    • RK2
    • RSF1010 plasmids
    • RC plasmids; Example: pBBR1MCS .
    • Plasmids with the ori region of RK2 can replicate in most types of Gram-negative proteobacteria.
    • Plasmids with the RSF1010-derived plasmids can replicate in Gram-positive bacteria too. Example: Firmicutes.
    • Replication of the same plasmid can occur even in the distantly related bacteria.
    • Broad-host-range plasmids do not depend on the host cell because they encode their proteins. These proteins are essential for the initiation of replication.
    • Broad host-range plasmids should be for gene expression in many types of bacteria.

Determining the Host Range

  • It is sometimes difficult to ensure the particular plasmid will replicate on the other host or not. So, The actual host ranges of most plasmids are unknown.
  • Initially, plasmids need to be introduced to the other bacteria.
  • So, for this process, a system has been developed which is known as transformation.
  • By this method, the plasmid can be introduced into the bacteria to see if it could replicate or not.
  • But it has limitations as it can’t be applied to all types of bacteria.
  • Similarly, to introduce DNA into cells, electroporation can be used.
  • Plasmids can be introduced into other types of bacteria by the conjugation process.
  • It is also found that the expression of the gene present in one plasmid does not function well or doesn’t get expressed in the other bacterium.
  • Sometimes the selected gene can be introduced into the different bacteria.
  • A bacterium might possess resistance to any antibiotic due to the presence of a particular gene. Such resistance property can be transferred to other bacteria too when they will uptake those resistant genes.
  • For example, the kanamycin resistance gene, which is first found in the Tn5 It can be expressed in most Gram-negative bacteria. Then, it will make resistant to kanamycin antibiotic.
  • By this property, a marker gene can be cloned in the plasmid. i.e making numerous copies.
  • A transposon carrying a selectable marker into the plasmid can also be introduced by this method.
  • Care must also be taken to ensure that the plasmid has not recombined into the host chromosome.
  • Determining the host range of a plasmid is laborious too. Many barriers hinder the transfer of plasmid into the host. The same method can’t be approached to all sorts of plasmids and bacteria.